Author: Mike Yongjun Tan
This paper was presented at the Corrosion & Prevention 2023
ABSTRACT
Corrosion engineering is expected to play an important role in the emerging renewable energy economy because corrosion and materials degradation are expected to significantly affect the safety, durability, and sustainability of essential infrastructure required for the production, delivery, storage and utilisation of renewable energy such as wind, solar, hydrogen, geothermal, hydropower, ocean and bioenergy. To decarbonise our economy, a huge network of energy infrastructure will need to be built both onshore and offshore, often at remote locations. Corrosion, hydrogen embrittlement and other forms of materials degradation will pose major challenges to critical components of energy infrastructure that often operate in extreme and complex environmental conditions. Currently solar and wind farms are designed only for 20-30 years due to the degradation of solar panels and wind turbines. Such short design life is unsustainable, not only from lifecycle assessment point of view, but also for generating significant materials wastage. The life of batteries, electrolysers and fuel cells are also affected by corrosion and materials degradation. Addressing these issues is critical for the feasibility and sustainability of future renewable energy-based economy. This paper provides an overview of current issues in corrosion engineering, and discusses future challenges in the renewable energy age. It is shown that the prediction, detection and prevention of localised forms of corrosion in complex environments are the most significant challenges to corrosion engineering. Future corrosion management will need to incorporate advanced corrosion monitoring tools, data analytics, artificial intelligence and predictive modelling in order to achieve quantitative, accurate and reliable corrosion prediction and closed-loop smart corrosion control.
Keywords: Corrosion engineering, corrosion monitoring, corrosion prediction, smart corrosion control
1. INTRODUCTION
Corrosion is an enduring problem costing the global economy an estimated 3.4% of GDP [1,2]. Traditionally the energy sector has been at the heart of corrosion engineering because of the critical need for corrosion prevention in energy production, transportation, storage and application industries such as in oil and gas, petrochemical and nuclear power industries. Corrosion engineering is expected to play an even more important role in the emerging renewable energy economy because corrosion, hydrogen embrittlement and various types of materials degradation are expected to pose major challenges to the safety, durability, and sustainability of essential infrastructure required for the production, delivery, storage and utilisation of renewable energy such as wind, solar, hydrogen, geothermal, hydropower, ocean and bioenergy. Renewable sources of energy continued to grow rapidly, and the new energy industry is becoming a major new area for investment and employment. Australia has an abundance of renewable energy resources including wind and solar energy that can be used to decarbonise our economy and to increase clean energy exports, however, to reach the transition to a carbon-neutral economy Australia will need to build a huge network of safe and sustainable energy infrastructure both onshore and offshore, often at remote and corrosive locations. Many critical components of energy infrastructure will need to operate in extreme and complex environmental conditions, for instance in hydrogen generation electrolysers and hydrogen fuel cells, electrodes and membranes are susceptible to corrosion and hydrogen embrittlement in acidic, alkaline, and hydrogen containing environmental conditions. Currently solar and wind farms are generally designed only for 20-30 years due to the corrosion and degradation of infrastructure such as solar panels and wind turbines. Such short design life is unsustainable and wasteful from lifecycle assessment point of view. Corrosion engineering will need to contribute to overcoming these challenges affecting the durability and sustainability of energy infrastructure that is critical for the feasibility of future renewable energy-based economy. This paper intends to provide an overview of current issues and to initiate discussion on future challenges and opportunities in this ‘age of change’. Based on literature review and analysis, this paper aims to instigate discussion on questions like, ‘What corrosion engineering will look like in this changing age with a global transition towards renewable energy’? ‘What corrosion scientists and engineers will need to contribute to the development and protection of future sustainable energy infrastructure’? These questions need to be asked and answered in order for us to prepare corrosion engineering and technology for the new energy economy future.
2. OVERVIEW OF CURRENT STATUS AND ISSUES
Over the past century, significantly improved understanding of materials behaviour and performance, extensively developed materials selection standards and software, as well as various engineering design tools have facilitated the avoidance of ‘short-term’ failure of engineering structures. However, ‘long-term’ materials failure issues, in particular localised forms of corrosion and materials degradation, still remain tenacious threats to the integrity and safety of the huge network of civil and industrial infrastructure assets including energy infrastructure, especially those exposed to complex and varying environmental conditions. Substantial progresses have also been made in corrosion science and engineering, facilitating the effective control of uniform and general corrosion in many industrial structures such as automobile body rusting and radiator corrosion, however the management and control of localised corrosion in complex engineering environments still remain significant challenges. It is evident by many publicly reported catastrophic engineering structure failures and an enormous amount of unreported infrastructure incidents discussed in reference [1-4]. This problem becomes even more acute when complex forms of localised corrosion occur on ‘invisible’ and highly variable engineering structures such as buried and submerged oil, gas and hydrogen pipelines. In most practical cases, the failure of engineering structures is due to unexpected and complex forms of localised damage on the structure. The safe service life of an engineering structure is often determined by the ‘worst case scenario’ localised corrosion such as corrosion under disbonded coatings on buried steel pipelines.
Unfortunately, effective control and management of localised forms of corrosion in complex environments is probably the most significant issue that has not yet sufficiently addressed by corrosion engineering. In the renewable energy age, control and management of localised forms of corrosion will be even more critical for maintaining the safety and integrity of energy infrastructures that are often exposed to more complex environments 3and are located at remote offshore sites. Although localised corrosion has been widely studied over the past decades, most studies are typically limited to the investigation of specific forms of localised corrosion such as pitting of stainless steels in defined laboratory environments. Conventionally corrosion science research considers a corrosive environment uniform and stable, a simplification of complex and changing industrial environments. Corrosion prediction models, testing methods and protection measures are mostly developed under such simplification. Regrettably most practical engineering structures can be subjected to highly non-uniform corrosion under multiple and dynamically changing environmental conditions. An example is localised corrosion of buried steel pipelines that are affected not only by seasonal changes in soil moisture and oxygen levels, inhomogeneous coating defects and coating disbondment, but also by fluctuating stray currents and oscillating mechanical stresses. Another example is localised corrosion on offshore structures such as wind turbines and oil platforms that are affected by multi-zone and dynamically changing marine environmental conditions. Variable and complex environmental conditions can not only lead to changes in corrosion rates, but also in corrosion patterns and mechanisms. Unexpected changes in environment and mechanism could also cause suddenly accelerated localised corrosion damages that are not predictable by conventional corrosion models. Currently corrosion engineering studies have not sufficiently considered these issues, leaving a major knowledge gap in corrosion science and engineering.
It should be noted that corrosion is a thermodynamically spontaneous process that is not completely preventable, therefore the practical goal of corrosion engineering should be to prevent the pre-mature failure of engineering materials with an aim to extend the economical and safe operational life of engineering structures. Corrosion resistant materials and corrosion prevention technologies developed over the past centuries have been widely used for general corrosion control and management, however they have critical weaknesses in fully preventing localised forms of corrosion. There could be various new ways of making progresses in developing more efficient materials and technologies for localised corrosion control, however eventually it should be acknowledged that it is unlikely that localised corrosion will be prevented fully and economically. The most likely scenario is that localised corrosion will remain the ‘worst case scenario’ and the most significant challenge to realising optimal operational lives of future renewable engineering structures. Localised corrosion control and management would therefore be expected to remain as the most important issue that corrosion scientists and engineers will need to address.
Although various approaches to localised corrosion control can be taken in the future, the most practical approach to addressing major challenges of localised corrosion to future renewable energy infrastructure should probably be based on reliable and more effective localised corrosion prediction, detection and control. A prerequisite for achieving such effective and reliable corrosion management is timely knowledge about the initiation, propagation and seriousness of localised corrosion occurring over an engineering structure in order to take timely corrective actions. Currently accurate and reliable localised corrosion prediction in practical engineering structures is very difficult, if not impossible. Current industrial knowledge of localised corrosion is mostly from time based routine inspections using various condition assessment and in-line inspection tools. Although corrosion data from such inspection are useful for identifying longer-term corrosion trends, they often do not have sufficient temporal and spatial resolutions required for predicting dynamic changes in complex localised corrosion including these in renewable energy systems. Acquiring corrosion data more frequently and more reliably is necessary not only for early warning of unanticipated structural failure but also for evaluating the efficiency of corrosion control measures such as cathodic protection, corrosion inhibitors and protective coatings.
Over the past decades variously designed corrosion monitoring and detection sensors and probes have been developed for in-situ and site-specific corrosion data acquisition. Many of these, such as scanning probes, are for laboratory use only, although electrochemical noise analysis and various forms of electrochemically integrated multi-electrode arrays, often referred to as the wire beam electrode (WBE), have shown promises for industry application as described references [3,4]. The WBE concept has enabled the design of various forms of novel localised corrosion probes for in-situ measurement and monitoring of difficult-to-measure forms of localised corrosion. More widespread industrial application of effective corrosion monitoring sensors and probes will be needed in order to achieve wider availability of real time corrosion data which, in conjunction with corrosion modelling, data analytics and artificial intelligence technologies, to enable much more reliable corrosion prediction, control and management systems.
3. DISCUSSION ON FUTURE CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES
As discussed above, the management and control of complex forms of localised corrosion will remain a major issue in essential infrastructure required for the production, delivery, storage and utilisation of future energy such as wind, solar and hydrogen energy, posing major challenges to the feasibility, safety, durability, and sustainability of the new energy economy. The management and protection of such complex engineering structures could be considered comparable with the management of human health. Human health care usually starts from detecting and diagnosing diseases such as cancers before curing and preventing them. Human can obtain health related information using many ‘sensors’, the eyes, ears, nose, skin and tongue, that provide disease information through vision, hearing, smell, touch and taste. This information provides warning to patients and assist medical doctors in diagnosing diseases. Diseases can be further treated through medical testing, doctor’s analysis and the use of various medical treatment. Similarly, a prerequisite for achieving effective and realistic structure health care should be the capability to effectively sense, locate and monitor corrosion, in particular complex forms of localised corrosion. For engineering structures, unfortunately such disease ‘sensors’ are not naturally available and therefore it is essential to have artificial devices installed for sensing structural health issues in particular complex forms of localised corrosion.
Currently there are also knowledge and technological gaps that limit the ability of engineers to effectively, reliably and proactively detect and control localised corrosion. Many of these gaps, challenges and needs have been extensively discussed in various occasions over the past decades [5-9]. An ‘ideal’ corrosion monitoring and control system should be one that not only provides in-situ and site-specific corrosion data required to visualise localised corrosion in variable corrosion environments, but also to use such data to inform corrosion predictive modelling, mitigation and management actions that may need to be adjusted smartly and dynamically based on the prevailing corrosion condition and mechanism. For instance, corrosion data are needed to guide local coating repair and to regulate local cathodic protection potential and corrosion inhibitors injection. In this manner, the threat of localised corrosion to the integrity and safety of engineering structures would be minimised and the safe operational life of infrastructure would be maximised. Considering the variable nature of corrosion environments and mechanisms in practical engineering structures, corrosion management and prevention actions may need to be adjusted smartly and dynamically based on the prevailing corrosion condition and mechanism. Of course, a prerequisite for doing this effectively is timely knowledge about the initiation, propagation and seriousness of localised corrosion occurring over an engineering structure. For this reason, corrosion monitoring tools, data analytics and predictive models are critical for corrosion management. Great opportunities exist to use ‘engineering tools to achieve quantitative life prediction, to incorporate state-of-the-art sensing approaches into experimentation and materials architectures, and to introduce environmental degradation factors into these capabilities’ [8].
This should be a major opportunity for future renewable energy infrastructure management. The timely and reliable detection and prediction of complex forms of localised corrosion in variable environmental conditions using corrosion probes and predictive models would assist engineers to enhance infrastructure durability and enable life extension of complex engineering structures through the improved modelling, prediction and management of complex localised corrosion – the prime threat to the integrity of metallic structures. Corrosion mechanisms and kinetics in complex engineering structures are environment sensitive and can change with time and location. Even if corrosion systems have identical initial environments, corrosion conditions in these systems can still differ significantly with time due to the localisation of corrosion reactions such as local cathodic reduction of oxygen, local dissolution and hydrolysis of metals, and local deposition of corrosion products. This is especially true for aged engineering structures where material and environmental conditions could vary significantly over time, therefore the prediction of corrosion especially localised corrosion is a significant challenge under such changing local conditions. Effective and reliable corrosion monitoring and prediction tools are therefore important for acquiring corrosion data that are critical for providing warning and prediction of safety issues and providing timely advice of maintenance needs especially for aged engineering structures hidden in soil, concrete and deep sea. Despite of progresses in developing corrosion inspection, detection and monitoring tools and sensors over the past decades, the temporal and spatial resolutions of corrosion data still need enhancement in order to improve the reliable and timely warning of corrosion.
The prediction of long-term corrosion behaviour would need to be based upon the accumulation and analysis of long term and reliable corrosion data with appropriate temporal and spatial resolutions. This is achievable through the development of new technologies such as smart corrosion monitoring probes and computational corrosion modelling and analysis. It is expected that widespread industrial application of various effective corrosion monitoring tools will lead to the availability of real time corrosion data that in conjunction with data analytics and artificial intelligence technologies will enable more reliable corrosion predictive modelling. The maintenance and management of future energy infrastructures will require more reliable and accurate corrosion forecast and prediction capabilities in order to meet the society’s increasingly higher safety standards. This will need more effective corrosion detection, monitoring and control technologies in order to detect corrosion especially localised forms of corrosion in complex and variable environments. There are opportunities in making significant progresses in the development and especially the industrial application of effective and reliable corrosion monitoring tools and predictive models.
It should be noted that currently the practical and successful application of corrosion probes as structural health monitoring tools in industry is limited and that the reliability and accuracy of current corrosion monitoring data are often not good enough. A major reason that could lead to reporting of false corrosion rates and patterns has been identified to be the inappropriate design and use of corrosion probes that overlook various corrosion mechanisms and possible changes in corrosion mechanisms with the extension of corrosion processes [3]. It is well appreciated that corrosion probes need to simulate the actual service exposure environment; however relatively less considerations have been given to the effects of environmental parameters on corrosion patterns and mechanisms. This challenge is more acute when corrosion is affected by many inter-related variables such as nonuniform temperature and pressure, heterogeneous metallurgy, inhomogeneous soil or solution chemistry and thermos-mechanical conditions, local mechanical stress, coating defects, and cathodic potential and excursions. Therefore, several critical progresses will need to be made in order to significantly enhance the reliability and applicability of corrosion probes as a structural health monitoring tool. Successful corrosion probe application in a structural health monitoring system requires the probe surface to simulate not only the corrosion environment, but also the critical corrosion mechanisms occurring on the infrastructure. It is essential to ensure that the corrosion probes are able to effectively simulate localised corrosion behaviour in actual service environments and reliably evaluate the effects of various factors on corrosion processes, rates and mechanisms. Further developments are needed to enhance the reliability of corrosion monitoring by improving the design and application of corrosion probes. Nevertheless it is expected that corrosion probes will become reliable tools for early detection and diagnosis of corrosion, for providing industrial system ‘health’ alarm, for forecasting maintenance requirements, and for generating data for integrated and automated corrosion management system, enabling early detection, warning, diagnosis and prediction of infrastructural corrosion and failure.
Predictive models are probably the most widely used tools for predicting and managing corrosion with various mathematical or empirical models developed covering different length scales. Macroscopic models are designed to predict corrosion cells over centimetre to meter length scales; meso-scale models are developed to predict corrosion activities at sub-micrometre to millimetre scales; while atomistic models describe the motion of individual atoms involved in the fundamental corrosion mechanisms of bonding and charge transfer processes. However, in engineering practice, accurate modelling of localised corrosion processes in complex and variable environment can be very difficult and the prediction of corrosion patterns and locations in an engineering structure is deemed to be a major challenge in corrosion management. It is widely believed that corrosion behaviour in the real world is nearly unpredictable because there are too many varieties of changes of environmental factors that can affect corrosion, including temperature, pressure, chemical composition, constituent concentration, pH value, electrical or thermal conductivity, viscosity, etc.. The changing nature of corrosion in real engineering systems suggests that a corrosion predictive model needs to be dynamically varying with changes in the corrosion environment and mechanism. This is challenging but it is not impossible if no in-situ and site-specific corrosion data become available. Opportunities should exist in the development of ‘dynamic’ corrosion predictive models and corrosion predictive networks supported by corrosion data, data analytics and artificial intelligence. The availability of corrosion data with good temporal and spatial resolutions from effective and reliable corrosion monitoring would also enable the establishment of a long-term corrosion database. Such database will enable big data, computational 6data analytics and artificial intelligence as new approaches for the corrosion engineering community to make breakthrough in corrosion prediction, control and management. An ‘ideal’ corrosion monitoring and forecast system for managing complex localised corrosion in practical engineering structures should include a corrosion data collection system including various corrosion inspection and monitoring tools to collect data of required temporal and spatial resolutions, a big data and data analytic system for data integration and analysis, as well as an artificial intelligence system for smart pattern recognition and prediction. Generally speaking, the future for corrosion monitoring and predictive modelling is promising. As pointed out by a National Research Council study, Research Opportunities in Corrosion Science and Engineering ‘the field of corrosion science and engineering is on the threshold of important advances’ [5,8].
New knowledge is also needed on the performance and durability of materials in renewable energy devices that operate in extreme environments, including corrosive, highly acidic, stressed, high and cyclic current exposure, and hydrogen containing environments. There will be need for the development of advanced materials that will de-risk materials degradation, be scalable, and add value to Australian manufactured products for green energy economy. In particular, future energy infrastructure will require more efficient corrosion protection technologies, especially those able to control localised forms of corrosion, in order to extend the service life of future renewable energy infrastructures. Life cycle assessment and sustainability will need be taken in future corrosion engineering thinking and practice. For instance, current design life of energy systems, approximately 25 years, is not enough from sustainability point of view. The applied nature of corrosion engineering suggests that it needs to respond to changing industrial and social needs, for instance the need for hydrogen transportation and storage; the need for permanent storage of nuclear wastes; the need for offshore solar and wind farms etc.. For instance, new challenges will also need to be addressed in detecting, predicting and controlling hydrogen embrittlement in hydrogen energy systems. The emerging hydrogen economy has created a need for steel pipelines such as X65 steel natural gas pipelines to be used to transport and store hydrogen-containing fuels as an economical method of distributing and storing gaseous hydrogen. However in order to ensure the reliability and safety of pipelines it is critical to understand the material behaviour and interaction of these standard pipeline materials, aged or new, with hydrogen when they are used in pressurised hydrogen-natural gas mixtures. There have been many studies on the interaction of standard pipeline materials with hydrogen in the past, and it has been reported that a general reduction in the materials ability to plastically deform was noted in pipeline steels [10-13]. Research has confirmed the need for caution when injecting significant levels of hydrogen into transmission pipelines, especially into higher grade pipelines operating at higher pressures because hydrogen additions can generally increase hydrogen embrittlement and the fatigue crack growth rate as the hydrogen content in the methane increases [12-14]. Overall, the long-term performance of materials in renewable gas environment, in particular hydrogen methane blends, is not fully understood.
There are new demands for eco-informed materials selection and environmentally friendly anti-corrosion materials. New eco-informed and environmentally friendly anti-corrosion materials and methods will be required to meet progressively strict regulations for environmental protection. This will include the development of smart anti-corrosion materials and methods in order to meet the new requirement for environmental protection and the effective control of localised corrosion in harsh engineering conditions. Over the recent decades, requirements for environmentally friendly engineering materials have significantly affected corrosion engineering. For instance, the development of environmentally friendly corrosion-resistant functional coatings has become an important need. Coatings have the ability to alter the properties of a metal surface, which opens up many new application fields for metals. Generally speaking, the corrosion resistance of a coating is a function of the stability of the coating material, the integrity and thickness of the coating layer, and the adhesion of the coating on metals. It also depends upon how the coating responds to temperature, stress, and abrasion in service. Molecular design has been used as an approach to developing such multi-functional coatings that satisfy many contradicting requirements. In a typical study, copolymerization has been carried out to enhance the anti-corrosion performance of multi-functional waterborne acrylic coatings in order to overcome drawbacks of waterborne coatings in poor water and corrosion resistance, low solid content and so forth [15,16]. Similarly multifunctional and environmentally friendly materials have also been developed from various other materials for various purposes. For instance, a triple-functional carbon fibre reinforced polymer was developed for strengthening and protecting reinforced concrete structures [17,18]. Carbon 7fiber reinforced polymers (CFRP) are composite materials that have been applied for repairing and retrofitting civil engineering structures. Reinforced concrete has been widely used for constructing major civil and infrastructures such as bridges because of its stability, economy, versatility, and especially its resilience in extreme environmental conditions. CFRPs, because of their high strength, chemical and corrosion resistance, have been applied for retrofitting and strengthening civil engineering structures either by CFRP jacketing and CFRP wrapping RC structures such as columns, beams and slabs. Recently long-term performance tests have demonstrated that the CFRP can not only perform as a strengthening material for RC, but also can simultaneously perform as a protective coating layer and an impressed current cathodic protection anode for protecting steel rebar from corrosion [18]. Technologies like these could be applied to future renewable energy infrastructure exposed to more complex environments.
4. CONCLUDING REMARKS
An overview of current issues in corrosion engineering and discussion of future challenges in the renewable energy age have identified several major challenges to corrosion engineering. It is shown that the prediction, detection and prevention of localised forms of corrosion in complex environments are the most significant challenges to corrosion engineering. Future corrosion management will need to incorporate advanced corrosion monitoring tools, data analytics, artificial intelligence and predictive modelling in order to achieve quantitative, accurate and reliable corrosion prediction and closed-loop smart corrosion control. More specifically, (i) the maintenance and management of future energy infrastructures will require more reliable and accurate corrosion forecast and prediction capabilities for more effective detection, monitoring and control of corrosion on infrastructure exposed to complex and variable environments. (ii) Future energy infrastructure will require more efficient corrosion protection technologies, especially those able to control localised forms of corrosion, in order to extend the service life of future renewable energy infrastructures. (iii) New eco-informed and environmentally friendly anti-corrosion materials and methods will be required to meet progressively strict regulations for environmental protection.
5. REFERENCES
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AUTHOR DETAILS
Prof Mike Tan’s principal professional interests are in corrosion science and engineering and their applications for enhancing the reliability and durability of civil and industrial infrastructures, in particular underground oil & gas pipelines, hydrogen fuel systems and offshore infrastructures. He has actively engaged with the Australia’s energy pipelines, future fuels and offshore infrastructure industries. He has led more than 30 research projects over the past decade to address critical engineering issues that affect the reliability and durability of underground pipelines and offshore oil & gas infrastructures. Dr Tan has received NACE Fellow honour ‘in recognition of distinguished contributions in the field of corrosion and its prevention’. He is an author of over 250 referred publications with his original contribution highlighted in two research books ((i) Y.J. Tan, 2012, Heterogeneous Electrode Processes and Localised Corrosion, and (ii) M.Y.J Tan Localised Corrosion in Complex Environments, John Wiley & Sons Inc., USA).